📜 The Articles of Confederation
After independence, the states needed a government. In 1781, they adopted the Articles of Confederation - America's first constitution.
Structure Under the Articles
- Weak central government - Most power remained with states
- One-house legislature (Congress) - Each state had one vote
- No executive branch - No president
- No judicial branch - No national court system
- No power to tax - Could only request money from states
Problems with the Articles
⚠️ Why the Articles Failed
- No money: Congress couldn't pay debts or fund an army
- No trade regulation: States taxed each other's goods
- No enforcement: Congress couldn't force states to follow laws
- Hard to change: Needed all 13 states to agree on amendments
- No unity: States acted like 13 separate countries
Shays' Rebellion (1786-1787)
Massachusetts farmers, led by Daniel Shays, rebelled against high taxes and debt. The rebellion showed the Articles government was too weak to maintain order. This convinced leaders that a stronger government was needed.
🏛️ The Constitutional Convention (1787)
In May 1787, delegates from 12 states met in Philadelphia to revise the Articles. Instead, they decided to write a completely new constitution.
Major Debates and Compromises
The Virginia Plan
Proposed by James Madison. Called for representation based on population - favored large states.
The New Jersey Plan
Each state gets equal representation - favored small states.
The Great Compromise (Connecticut Compromise)
Solution: Two-house legislature
• House of Representatives - based on population
• Senate - equal representation (2 senators per state)
The Three-Fifths Compromise
Southern states wanted to count enslaved people for representation (more seats in Congress) but not for taxes. Northern states objected.
Compromise: Count enslaved people as 3/5 of a person for both representation and taxation. This was a tragic moral compromise that treated human beings as fractions.
The Slave Trade Compromise
Northern states wanted to ban the slave trade immediately. Southern states threatened to leave the Convention.
Compromise: Congress couldn't ban the slave trade until 1808 (20 years). This allowed slavery to continue and grow.
⚖️ Principles of the Constitution
1. Popular Sovereignty
"We the People" - The government's power comes from the people.
2. Limited Government
Government can only do what the Constitution allows.
3. Separation of Powers
Power is divided among three branches:
- Legislative Branch (Congress) - Makes laws
- Executive Branch (President) - Enforces laws
- Judicial Branch (Courts) - Interprets laws
4. Checks and Balances
Each branch can limit the power of the others:
Examples of Checks and Balances
- Congress can impeach and remove the president
- President can veto laws passed by Congress
- Supreme Court can declare laws unconstitutional
- Senate must approve treaties and presidential appointments
- Congress controls the budget
5. Federalism
Power is shared between the national government and state governments.
- National powers: Coin money, declare war, conduct foreign policy
- State powers: Run elections, establish schools, regulate in-state commerce
- Concurrent powers: Both can tax, build roads, establish courts
6. Judicial Review
Courts can determine if laws violate the Constitution (established later in Marbury v. Madison, 1803).
🤝 Federalists vs. Anti-Federalists
Federalists (Supported the Constitution)
Leaders: Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, John Jay
- Wanted strong central government
- Believed Constitution protected liberty through checks and balances
- Wrote the Federalist Papers - 85 essays defending the Constitution
- Supported by merchants, city dwellers, wealthy
Anti-Federalists (Opposed the Constitution)
Leaders: Patrick Henry, Samuel Adams, George Mason
- Feared strong central government would become tyrannical
- Wanted more power for states
- Demanded a Bill of Rights to protect individual freedoms
- Supported by small farmers, rural areas
💬 Patrick Henry's Warning
"I smell a rat!" - Patrick Henry refused to attend the Convention, fearing it would create too powerful a government. He later fought against ratification.
✅ Ratification
The Constitution needed approval from 9 of 13 states to become law. The battle for ratification was fierce!
December 1787
Delaware becomes first state to ratify
June 1788
New Hampshire becomes 9th state - Constitution is now law!
1788-1790
Virginia, New York, North Carolina, and Rhode Island eventually ratify
To win ratification, Federalists promised to add a Bill of Rights protecting individual freedoms.
📋 The Bill of Rights (1791)
James Madison wrote 12 amendments to the Constitution. Congress approved them, and states ratified 10, which became the Bill of Rights.
- 1st Amendment
- Freedom of religion, speech, press, assembly, petition
- 2nd Amendment
- Right to bear arms
- 3rd Amendment
- No quartering soldiers in homes
- 4th Amendment
- Protection from unreasonable searches and seizures
- 5th Amendment
- Rights in criminal cases (due process, no self-incrimination, no double jeopardy)
- 6th Amendment
- Right to speedy, public trial; right to lawyer
- 7th Amendment
- Right to jury trial in civil cases
- 8th Amendment
- No excessive bail or cruel and unusual punishment
- 9th Amendment
- People have rights not listed in the Constitution
- 10th Amendment
- Powers not given to federal government belong to states or people
🎯 Most Important Freedoms
The 1st Amendment protects our most basic freedoms - religion, speech, press, assembly, and petition. These rights make democracy possible!
📚 Key Terms
- Articles of Confederation
- America's first constitution (1781-1789), created a weak central government
- Constitutional Convention
- 1787 meeting in Philadelphia that created the U.S. Constitution
- Great Compromise
- Created two-house legislature with representation based on population (House) and equal representation (Senate)
- Separation of Powers
- Division of government into legislative, executive, and judicial branches
- Checks and Balances
- System allowing each branch to limit the power of the others
- Federalism
- Sharing of power between national and state governments
- Federalists
- Supporters of the Constitution who favored strong central government
- Anti-Federalists
- Opponents of the Constitution who feared strong central government
- Bill of Rights
- First 10 amendments to the Constitution, protecting individual rights
- Ratification
- Official approval of the Constitution by the states
📝 Chapter Summary
- The Articles of Confederation created a weak government that couldn't solve national problems
- Shays' Rebellion showed the need for a stronger government
- The Constitutional Convention (1787) created a new constitution
- The Great Compromise created a two-house legislature
- Tragic compromises allowed slavery to continue
- The Constitution established separation of powers, checks and balances, and federalism
- Federalists supported the Constitution; Anti-Federalists opposed it
- The Constitution was ratified in 1788
- The Bill of Rights (1791) added protection for individual freedoms
- The Constitution remains the supreme law of the United States